John Broadus Watson: Theory of Behaviorism Essay

Behaviorism is the theoretical concept which deals with an explicit behavioral science. It describes the viewpoint of science, a mind philosophy, a pragmatic theory, and principles. These thoughts and theories devised by studying behavior of living creatures (Zuriff, 1985). The vital principles of behaviorism are that scientific psychology must center on the correlation between environmental contingencies and behavior rather than on the supposed contents of consciousness and secondly the principles which govern behavior of humans and other animals are basically indistinguishable (O’Donnell, 1985). This paper explains the theory of behaviorism developed by John Broadus Watson and contribution of other behaviorists in hardening the concept of behaviorism. John Broadus Watson, influential figure in the field of psychology, formed the psychological school of behaviorism through extensive research on animal behavior. He is popular among psychology students for by using effective behavioral practices. Behaviorism in psychology is an entirely objective experimental field of natural science. The main theoretical aspect of behaviorism is to foresee and direct of behavior. Mainly Watson pioneered the phrase Behaviorism to study human psychology as a base of his experimentation. The behaviorism theory focuses on the studying overt behaviors which can be easily observed and measured (Hothersal, 2004). In theoretical framework, stimulus response can be observed and measured quantitatively. Behaviorist theory was developed by numerous psychologists such as Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Kline, Angell, Mary Calkins,Yerkes and Skinner. The behaviorist attempted to devise common method of animal response. They did not differentiate between man and animal. The complex human behavior and its refinement is only a part of the behaviorist’s scheme of research. To study behavior in depth, sometimes behaviorists turned to scientists whose prime focus is their experimental research and hypothesizing (Zuriff, 1985). The expansion of behaviorist approach is often depicted as an uprising process. In 1913, when John Broadus Watson showed his famous â€Å"behaviorist manifesto,† psychology was the science of mind, the central observable fact of mind were consciousness and the method of preference for the scrutiny of consciousness was introspection by a qualified viewer under controlled conditions (Watson, 1913). The study of human and animal behavior through entirely objective methods under conditions of experimental operation and control of stimulus conditions were traditional. Watson professed between the objective nature of available behavioral methods and the then widespread beliefs of a thoughtful psychology defined as the science of consciousness. Another psychologist, Angell researched behaviorism and his comprehensive writing on behaviorism emerged in 1913 in an article named â€Å"Behavior as a Category of Psychology†. He always preferred objective experimental work instead of the introspective method or to deal with problems of consciousness, but he recommended sturdily against neglecting consciousness completely from the science. According to him, person must be watchful in order to look for superior ways of understanding human nature. He stressed that theory and practice of mental life might be explained in terms of objective behavior. Angell changed his views in later years. In 1936, after twenty years of behaviorist work in psychology, he wrote exclusive methods, like Watsonian behaviorism, simply supplicate the question and tacitly guess data which without introspective processes performed by their precursors would be paralyzed and completely sterile. Angell gave importance to methodological process and to realistic knowledge of both human and animal life. During 1938, conventional psychology was the science which concentrated not of mind but of behavior, the central fact of behavior were those of learning and memory and the methods of choice for the study of leaning and memory involved purely objective observations of behavioral data changeable as a function of the experimental manipulation of stimulus conditions (Woodworth, 1938). Critically opposing the Structuralism philosophical foundation of introspection, behaviorism grew out of a competing Functionalist viewpoint of psychology. Dewey and William James were the leading promoters. Against structuralism reification of the content of knowledge, Dewey advised that sensations be given a functional characterization, and proposed to treat them as functionally defined inhabitants of roles in the reflex arc which since it symbolized both the unit of nerve structure and the type of nerve function should supply the combined principle and controlling working hypothesis in psychology (Dewey 1896, Pg: 357). Though the arc, Dewey claimed, is misinterpreted if not viewed in broader organic-adaptive framework. On another hand against structuralism reification of the subject of experience, William James maintained that consciousness when once it has disappeared to this estate of pure diaphaneity is on the point of failing overall. The James-Lange theory of emotions explained that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion (James 1884, Pg: 189-190). Bertrand Russell, the first philosophers who identified the theoretical connotation of the behaviorist development which Watson proposed. Russell declared that behaviorism contains much more truth than people supposed and observed it as desirable to develop the behaviorist method to the full potential level (Russell 1927, pg: 73). He proposed a relation between behaviorism and scientific methodical philosophy of mind. Many psychologists did not accept introspection and interpretation in terms of consciousness. Watson had called for just such a transformation. Watson was not the only significant contributor to this revolution of behaviorism. Kline, famous psychologist decided to deal with the problem of animal behavior method. Kline built numerous laboratory apparatus for the study of the behavior of vorticella, wasps, chicks, and white rats under the supreme guidance of Sanford. Certainly, one of these apparatus, designed with the support of Small, approximated a simple Y-maze. Kline disapproved Thorndike’s over dependence on a solely experimental method, squabbled for a amalgamation of the naturalistic and experimental methods and explained the results of his own laboratory research, concluding that â€Å"the methods presented here enable us in a comparatively short time to point out more distinctly the dividing lines between instinct, intelligence, and habit. † (Kline, 1899, Pg: 279) While describing theory of behaviorism, Yerkes’ attitude of behaviorist approach has great significance. After Watson, Robert Mearns Yerkes was perhaps the most prominent supporter of an objective approach to the study of animal behavior.

Coraline Book review

Coralline is a horror story featuring a family that has recently moved to a new house. Coralline, a young girl, detests the move. When she discovers a door in the drawing room, she becomes curious. When she looks the first time, there is Just a brick wall, but the next time she checks, there is a passageway to an alternate universe. Coralline starts to believe that she likes this newfound world more, but will it stay that This British novella takes place in a community in Britain in summer 2002. This is a horror book but isn't as frightening as other books.The main characters are Coralline Jones, Mrs.. Jones, Mr.. Jones, The Cat, The Other Mother, and The Other Father. The story is told in third person and focuses mainly on Carolina's adventures. The plot revolves around a young girl named Coralline traveling through a door in her house to an alternate universe that has other versions of her parents that try to take her from the real world. Coralline believes she likes it there at fi rst and wishes she could live there but soon finds the evil in her other parent's plans. There are two possible themes to this book.The first is be careful what you wish for and the second is it's hard to look past the surface when it looks so perfect. This book was incredibly interesting and very different from any horror book I've ever read. Although it didn't terrify me like other books might, it was written differently and had a very interesting plot. I would recommend this book to anyone looking for a new book or a good book to read. I read this book due to the interest In the movie that I saw when I was younger and I enjoyed It twice as much as I loved the movie. I would definitely recommend this to everyone.

Commercial Law

ABDUL RASHID ABDUL MAJID v ISLAND GOLF PROPERTIES SDN BHD [1989] 3 MLJ 376 ISSUE In this case, the issues is whether the board was entitled to levy and collect fees known as development fees from members? PRINCIPLES The defendants owned, managed and operate a social golf club. Membership of the club is of the following types which are honorary membership, ordinary membership, ordinary transferable membership, subscribing membership, institutional corporate membership, expatriate transferable membership, ordinary social membership, term membership and visiting membership. Under the Rule 3 of the club’s rules provided, inter alia, that the club was a proprietary club, of which the defendants were the proprietors with a board of directors responsible for the policies, management and operation of the club. Rule 5 of the rules provided, inter alia, that all members shall not, by reason of his membership, be under any financial liability except for payment of his annual subscription and any other sums due under or levied under the rules and by laws to the defendants. The plaintiff is an ordinary transferable membership. The plaintiff applied to become a member of the club by submitting the necessary application form and duly executed a declaration contained therein which states, inter alia, that he accepted and agreed that the board of the defendants had sole responsible for the policies, management and operation of the club with the power to increase entrance fees and subscription and to levy and additional charges to meet expenditure and it also has the sole right to amend, vary, add to or formulate such rules, terms and conditions of the club including the withdrawal or addition of benefits and privileges of members as if may in its absolute discretion deem necessary. 1|Page The board sought to levy and collects the development fees pursuant to its power under the rules. Rule 33 of the club’s rules provided, inter alia, that the board shall be the sole authority for the interpretation of the rules and by laws made there under and that the decision of the board shall be final and binding on all members. The principle that is under Section 2 (a) of the Contracts Act 1950, a proposal is made when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence. Moreover, the proposal is invitation to treat which an invitation to make offer, negotiate or deal and has no legal consequence and cannot be accepted to bring a contract into existence. The communication of a proposal is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it made which under Section 4(1) of the Contracts Act 1950. This means that an offer or proposal is effective once it is communicating to the offeree by the offeree. Besides that, under Section 10 of the Contracts Act 1950 is already mention that all agreement are contract if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. The situation is similar in the case of Bomanji Ardeshir Wadia & Ors v Secretary of State AIR (1929) PC 34 wherein it the decision of the Privy Council was said nothing is better settled than that when parties have entered into a formal contract that contract must be construed according to its own terms and be explained or interpreted by the antecedent communing which led up to it. Another related case is Baker v Jones & Ors (1954) 2 All ER Lynskey J said that the contract is contained in, or to be implied from the rules. The courts must consider such a contract as they would consider any other contract. Although parties to a contract may in general, make any contract they like, there are certain limitations imposed by public policy and one of those limitations may be that parties cannot, by contract, oust the ordinary courts from jurisdiction. 2|Page JUDGEMENT The court held that declaring that the defendants’ board was not entitled to levy and collects the fees because the plaintiff’s application for membership was merely a preliminary step. The offer for membership came from the defendants after they had considered the plaintiff’s application. The contract between the plaintiff accepted the offer by making the payment of the entrance fees and the first subscription. Therefore, the declaration in the application forms as not part of the contract. It is just an antecedent communication. The only contract between the plaintiff and the defendants was the rules of the club. The authority to levy fees must clearly be given by the rules of the club and there was no such authority under the rules. Rule 33 clearly made the board the sole authority for the interpretation of the rules and as it purported to oust the court from their jurisdiction the rule was contrary to public policy and therefore void. 3|Page CONCLUSION The conclusion for this case is the board was not entitled to levy and collect fees known as development fees from members. For the interpretation of the rules, this is contrary to public policy and therefore void. Thus, a declaration of intention or an invitation to treat, so, all fees collected as development fees are repaid to the plaintiff and costs to be paid by the defendants. Otherwise, the offer must be communicated to the offeree which under Section 9 of the Contract Act 1950 is the exercise of power by the offeree indicating his assent to the transaction in response to the offer. The communication of an offer or a proposal is deemed to have been made by any act or omission of the party proposing by which he intends to communicate the proposal or which has the effect of communicating it. Therefore, the declaration in the application form was not part of the contract unless the plaintiff make pay sum of the fees which binding the rules of the club. It is normal for parties in the course of preliminary negotiation to make statements to each other but not all statement can be taken as an offer that can be accepted to bring about a contract. 4|Page

EU LAW KECK DECIDED Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

EU LAW KECK DECIDED - Essay Example The initial issue in the case was that court did not derail from the earlier notion about the idea of a measure that had an equal consequence to quantitative confinement on imports, which further triggered confusions between the provisions of Article 28 and 30. While rendering the decision in the two cases, the court agreed with the fundamental belief in Dasonville [Procureur du Roi v. Dassonville et al, Case 8/74, (1974) E.C.R. 837, 852, (1974) 2 C.M.L.R. 436, 448] & [Keck, [1994] E.C.R. 1-6097, 6130]. The purpose to obstruct intra-community dealing, when judging this was not a prerequisite for finding a violation in Article 30 [Schutzverband gegen Unwesen in der Wirtschaft v. Weinvertreibs-GmbH, Case 95/82, [1981] E.C.R. 1217, 1226]; P.B. Groenveld BV v. Produktschap voor Vee en Vlees, Case 15/79, [1979] E.C.R. 3409, [1981] 1 C.M.L.R. 207, 211 & EC Commission v. United Kingdom, Case 40/82, [1982] E.C.R. 2793, 2825-26, [1982] 3 C.M.L.R. 497, 535]. Even though, there was dissatisfaction regarding reasoning in Torfaen case, preceding to the Keck case1, it was unambiguous that court had acknowledged all actions being wedged with such measures that had an equivalent effect, but were warranted to be reasonable socio-economic strategy options [ Torfaen, [1989] E.C.R. 3851, [1990] 1 C.M.L.R. 33; Union departementale des syndicats CGT de lAisne v. SIDEF Conforama et. al., Case C,-312/89, [1991] E.C.R. 1-997, 1025, [1993] 3 C.M.L.R. 746, 767; The State of Belgium v. Andre Marchandise, Case C-332/89, [1991] E.C.R. 1-1027, 1041, [1993] 3 C.M.L.R. 746, 767 & Stoke-on-Trent, (1992] E.C.R. 1-6335, [1992] 1 C.M.L.R. 426, 464].At the time of hearing and judgments preceding Keck, the court also conferred on various selling practices and procedures [The Republic (France) v. JeanMarie Delattre, Case C-369/88. [1991] E.C.R. 1-1487, [1993] 2 C.M.L.R. 445; SCP Boscher, Studer et

Carther in the rye Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Carther in the rye - Essay Example per therefore addresses these age-related psychological states of Holden, how these states alienate him from the society, thereby slowing his psychological development. To begin with, Holden believes that the protection of innocence and especially childhood innocence is a virtue that all must uphold. For instance, he thinks of Jane Gallagher as the little girl he used to play checkers with, and not as a growing woman. He loathes the fact that some men make sexual advances towards women, some of whom, like Jane, he feels are supposed to remain pure. At one instance, Holden says, â€Å"Most guys at Pencey just  talked  about having sexual intercourse with girls all the time – like Ackley, for instance – but old Stradlater really did it,† (Bloom, 2007, 7.32). This statement expresses his disgust towards such behaviors. In chapter 22, a conversation between Phoebe and Holden reveals to us what he terms as the purpose of his life, that of being a catcher in the rye. He pictures children playing in a field of rye next to a cliff, and imagines that he would catch them in the event that they slip. This dream shows us that he has af fection for childhood. Finally, Holden’s obsession with profanity manifests itself when he sees obscene graffiti in school. While on his way to visiting his friend Phoebe, he sees the words ‘fuck you’ (Bloom, 2007, Cap. 25) inscribed on the wall and tries to erase them. This shows his dislike against anything that may corrupt the mind of the children. Holden also shows disgust towards what he terms the ‘phoniness’ of the adult world. Holden uses this phrase to describe such aspects as hypocrisy, pretension and shallowness. One of the things that Holden brands as phony is the movies and anything related to them. However, we observe that he watches movies not because he loves them, but due to the lack of an alternative. He also believes that people are phony because they accept middle class values, for instance, he says, â€Å"Lawyers

No Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

No - Essay Example sis shall in addition provide a discussion on the suggestions of what are to be done in order to improve the profit performance of the industry in the future. The following analyses are the probable reasons for the reduction of the industry’s profit according to the London’s time and tide (2011) newspaper explanation. According to the Excellence Clothing Company journal of 2014, there is a general decrease in base of revenue for the company. The revenue of the industry declined from  £255063 to  £215623 from the years 2013 to 2014. Since profit is a direct related function of revenue, that is profit = revenue – cost (cost of sales). Such a reduction in revenue consequently leads to loss realization or profit decline. There can be quite a number of factors that may lead to such a reduction in revenues. The policies of London have been proved to be ignorant on the clothing industries. The policies have not allowed for any incentive offer to be given to the industry. There are also varieties of stringent restrictive actions imposed by the London policies that have subjected the industry to many operation ceilings (Clutterbuck, & Crainer, 2012). This means that the company cannot operate beyond a certain set level of production even if it has the capacity of doing so. Most of the policies especially those by the London government have imposed huge amount of taxation on the industry in the year 2014. The industry is being taxed hugely in cases where the clothing raw materials to be used are imported. The custom duty to be paid in such cases of raw materials importation have been cutting deep in to the amount of cost expenses that are to be paid by the industry. The company is as well expected to be paying excise duties monthly and submitting their returns for excise duty charges. The above mentioned costs of taxation are of a negative impact to the industries revenues. Since such costs have to be paid by the industry through making withdrawals and deductions

Is English a Dying Lingua Franca Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Is English a Dying Lingua Franca - Essay Example This is a contact language of those persons who are not able to speak each others’ language but they do share a specific language which facilitates them for communication when they come into contact with each other. Due to the reasons mentioned above English language is a lingua franca for many people in the world. It is shared by nearly all the communities of the world. Most of the discourse between the people of South Asia, South East Asia and Africa and Middle East takes place by using English as a lingua franca. Can we say that English will continue to command this acceptance even in future? This question has initiated a debate that has generated response in its favour or against it. It was Graddol (1997) who first came up with certain interesting predictions about the future of language. It was he who had vigilant eye on certain socio-political changes across the globe. The socio-political changes along with new patterns of demographic shifts made Graddol claim that Engli sh language may lose its popularity and the present status of a being lingua franca due to the emergence of certain South East Asian and South Asian languages. Graddol reasoned that population explosions in China and India may increase the number of speakers of these languages who may outnumber the speaker of English language. He also predicts an uncertain future of English due to certain socio-economic transitions. Graf’s (2011) research reflects a departure from assumptions of Graddol as it sees no observable shift in the world’s lingua franca from English to any other language like Chinese or Urdu/Hindi due increase in number of speakers. Graf’s study has taken into academic and economic measures like bibliometric analysis and Gross Domestic Product to ascertain the possibility of Graddol’s claims. The study describes that although Chinese language is showing some developments at global level, yet it does not seem to have assumed the role and internati onal lingua franca in near future. All the above given indicators seems to suggest that â€Å" English-language cluster seems to remain unchallenged as the world’s most important academic and economic language (p . 77). Widdowson’s stand on the issue has been explained with reference of two quotations from poetry (Jenkins, para 30-31).The first is an excerpt from Yeats's TheSecond Coming: Things fall apart: the centre cannot hold Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world The second has been taken from Tennyson's  Idylls of the King: The old order changeth, yielding place to new, And God fulfills himself in many ways, Lest one good custom should corrupt the world. Widdowson’s analogies sum up the controversy in the form of two conclusions: According to the first analogy taken from Yeat’s poem Widdowson seems to assume that if the Inner Circle is able not able to maintain its authority then there will be situation of linguistic anarchy in world which uses En glish language as its primary mode of discourse. His second observation seems to view a situation where the non native varieties of English will take the place of English language. In both cases the status of English as a lingua franca is compromised (cited in Jenkins, 2005). Jenkins(2005) also shares the views expressed in Tennyson’s poem which seem to suggest a replacement theory regarding status of English. She also views a shift in favour of